Episode 7: 善意谎言与相对正义之辩
康德的纯粹理性理论
- 核心概念:
- 纯粹理性(pure reason)不受任何可能的外界条件影响。
- 决定选择时支配意志的理性,不同的人具有同样的纯粹理性,此为绝对命令(categorical imperative),最高无上的道德规则。
- 引用:
"When we think of ourselves as free, we transfer ourselves into the intelligible world as members and recognize the autonomy of the will."
(当我们认为我们自由时,我们就将自己上升到了理智世界,并意识到意志的自主性)
案例:门外凶手
- 情境:凶手敲门询问朋友是否在家。
- 关键争议:
- 一旦开始考虑结果之外的可能(如规则的例外),就已经变成了结果主义者(consequentialist)。
- 康德的立场:
- 直接的谎言(direct lie)与误导性的实话(misleading truth)在道德上存在差异。
- 康德不考虑后果,只关注道德准则,故不支持“善意的谎言”(well-intentioned lie),但允许“误导性的实话”。
案例:“我和那个女人没有发生性关系!”
- 分析:
- 康德认为此为典型的“误导性实话”,虽未直接撒谎,但通过选择性陈述隐瞒真相。
约翰·罗尔斯《正义论》
- 核心观点:
- "Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override..."
(基于公正,每个人的权力是平等的,即使是全社会的福利也不能越过,这种权利受正义保护,不受到社会利益的影响) - "无知面纱"(veil of ignorance):
- 只有在无知面纱的条件下达成的原则才是正义原则。
- "Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override..."
实际契约的约束力
- 约束体现:
- 共同利益的实现;
- 期待利益(expectations of benefit);
- 契约毁坏对契约本身的破坏(cheater's dilemma)。
- 基础:
- 基于同意的自主性(consent-based autonomy);
- 基于利益的互惠性(benefit-based reciprocity)。
实际契约的公平性问题
- 无法证明公平性:
- 任何实际契约都不能证明其本身的公平性。
- 即使双方都同意契约,并不能说明契约条款是公平的。
- 康德与罗尔斯的共识:
- 只有在假定契约(hypothetical contract)条件下,所有人在无知面纱下达成的协议,才是达到正义原则的唯一途径。
Episode 8: 公正起源与社会分配之辩:家庭因素的影响
财富分配原则
- 绝对自由(absolute freedom):
- “功绩主义(meritocracy)导致错误频发,令人遗忘人与人之间的区别。”
- 差异原则(difference principle):
- 社会经济不平等只有在能为最贫困者带来利益时才许可。
- "Those who have been favored by nature... may gain from their good fortune only on terms that improve the situation of those who have lost out."
(那些拥有天分的人只在提高相对无天分者的境况条件下获益)
平等类型与争议
- 自由主义-自由市场体系(Libertarian-free market system);
- 功绩主义-机会公平(Meritocratic-fair equality of opportunity);
- 平等主义-罗尔斯差异原则(Egalitarian-Rawls' difference principle)。
反对意见
- 激励问题(Incentives):
- 高边际税率可能导致积极性下降。
- 罗尔斯回应:天赋较高者应通过补偿训练和教育成本来帮助不利者。
- 努力问题(Effort):
- 未展开具体讨论。
- 自我所有权(Self-ownership):
- 将天赋视为公共资产违反自我所有权原则。
- 罗尔斯反驳:
- "...we simply do not have self-ownership in the absolute sense."
(或许就绝对意义而言,我们根本就没有自我所有权)
- "...we simply do not have self-ownership in the absolute sense."
自然分配与制度正义
The natural distribution is neither just nor unjust; nor is it unjust that persons are born into society at some particular position... What is just and unjust is the way that institutions deal with these facts.
(自然才能的分配无所谓公不公平,出生社会地位也无所谓公不公平,只有制度如何处理这些事实才涉及正义)A just scheme answers to what men are entitled to: it satisfies their legitimate expectations as founded upon social institutions. But what they are entitled to is not proportional to or dependent upon their intrinsic worth.
(公平的制度满足人们基于社会制度的合法期望,但所应得之物与内在价值无关)
Episode 9: 平权行动与种族歧视之辩
Hopewood案
- 争议焦点:
- 少数民族在竞争中享有宽松环境是否公平。
- 三种辩护理由:
- 纠正性(corrective):弥补教育背景差异;
- 补偿性(compensatory):纠正历史不公;
- 多样性(diversity):促进教育与社会整体利益。
道德缺失与分配正义
- 亚里士多德观点:
- 正义包含两个因素:物品与分配者。
- "Persons who are equal should have equal things assigned to them."
(平等的人应分配平等之物) - 目的论推理(Teleological Reasoning):分配需符合特定标准(如技能、贡献),偏离则为不公。
Episode 10: 公民自觉与选择权力之辩
亚里士多德 vs. 罗尔斯
- 亚里士多德:
- 政治的目标是实现美好生活(good life)。
- 人需通过社会(polis)实现德行。
- 康德与罗尔斯:
- 政治的作用是建立公平框架,促使公民选择善(good)。
案例:残疾运动员诉PGA
- 争议:Walking是否是高尔夫运动的必要组成部分?
- 核心问题:
- 若一切以目的论解决,个人选择社会角色的自由空间是否存在?
- 罗尔斯反对目的论:
- 目的论应用于正义会损害基本自由(如言论自由、宗教自由)。
Episode 11: 忠诚义务与爱国主义之辩
国家功能的不同视角
- 亚里士多德:国家培养公民美德;
- 康德:国家建立公平框架,让公民自由追求幸福。
Alasdair MacIntyre的观点
- 叙事性自我:
- "...the important question is not 'what can I do?' but 'what am I in this story?'"
(比“我可以做什么”更重要的是“我在其中是什么”) - 个人主义的道德缺失:
- "...to try to cut myself off from that past is to deform my present relationships."
(割裂过去会导致现有关系畸变)
- "...to try to cut myself off from that past is to deform my present relationships."
- "...the important question is not 'what can I do?' but 'what am I in this story?'"
Episode 12: 同性婚姻与堕胎权力之辩
婚姻的道德概念
- 孟德斯鸠观点:
- "A truly virtuous man would come to the aid of the most distant stranger as quickly as to his own friend."
(真正善良的人对陌生人和朋友的救助速度相同) - 争议:人类社会是否可能脱离小团体?
- "A truly virtuous man would come to the aid of the most distant stranger as quickly as to his own friend."
婚姻的本质
- 政府婚姻机构的三元关系:
- "...three partners to every civil marriage: two willing spouses and an approving State."
(民事婚姻由两个配偶和一个支持的政府组成) - 核心目的:
- "...exclusive and permanent commitment of the partners to one another is the essential point and purpose of marriage."
(婚姻的本质是双方的唯一、永久承诺,而非繁衍后代)
- "...exclusive and permanent commitment of the partners to one another is the essential point and purpose of marriage."
- "...three partners to every civil marriage: two willing spouses and an approving State."
方法论反思
- 辩证道德推理:
- 反思的均势(reflective equilibrium):反复对比案例与基本准则,修正初始错误。
- 正义的不可演绎性:
- "...a conception of justice cannot be deduced from self-evident premises. Its justification is a matter of the mutual support of many considerations..."
(正义的概念无法从不言自明的前提推出,需多种考虑相互支持)
- "...a conception of justice cannot be deduced from self-evident premises. Its justification is a matter of the mutual support of many considerations..."
终极思考:
Why have we never stopped debating justice? Because we live in its answers.
(我们为何从未停止争论正义?因为我们正生活在它的答案中。)